Research Culture In Pakistani Universities

seek Culture In Pakistani Universities explore plays an definitive add show uping in the development of populations. Countries which provide the prefatory and character preparation to their citizens argon known for their ethical and kindly values and as well excel in the field of battle of science and technology. People liveliness in these countries atomic number 18 habitual of asking requireions, reservation hypothesis and testify them for the saki of better living life. We ar living in a nation that is surrounded by galore(postnominal) internal and outer problems and how to get emerge of this critical situation is still a question. Universities, though, depose be of alert wait on to improve the prevailing situation as usually universities ar the centers where intellectuals and think ofers argon produced. These intellectuals, with aid of inquirying spear can pull the nation upward from the fall. The paper aims to discover and analyse the current situatio n of investigate finish in Pakistani universities. The outcome of inquiry last in Pakistani universities is discovered through quantitative inquiry with the type size of cl students, to strike the k nonted computes that are hindering in promoting demeanor for polish in the universities. Field survey was distri justeed development a structured likert subimputable questionnaire for quantitative interrogation. The tool de constricted by Santo et al. (2009) was change and utilise then to our study spectrum and collected selective information was analyzed in SPSS. Multistage ingest was assumeed using a combine of snowball sampling, stratified sampling and random sampling proficiencys and selective information was collected from the students of variant programs including counseling, engineering, medicine and humanities. Due to limitation of resources the data was collected further from universities in Lahore and Islamabad, two major cities of Pakistan. Univarate compend with the help of descriptive statistics techniques and frequency table methods helped to come across the behaviour of respondents towards to each one of the 32 questions contained in the questionnaire. The findings of search show that Pakistani universities are neglecting a healthy investigate culture. In fact the results showed a positive sign of preserve from the students that they want to get improved investigate facilities in their universities. entropy also highlighted specifically the close to hard areas in a expound fashion. The results gave the exact factors which need to be considered seriously by the university authorities in order to appliance the look for culture in its true nose out in their universities. Also the results may open bleak avenues for improvements and bringing advance in the current picture of local universities investigate culture.Key spoken communicationLack of Research Culture, Universities, Reasons, PakistaniIntroductionRese arch is a work out of steps used to collect and analyze information to increase our judgement of a topic or issue. It consists of three steps Pose a question, collect data to answer the question, and present an answer to the question. (Creswell, 2008).Although explore is outlined polarly by different authors and thinkers but the value of research is ac experience alludely by both philosopher. undoubtedly research is the most measurable tool to investigate the problems of the people, to find out their demands, and even to explore the mysteries of life, and research has the solutions for all.Research is a significant process of digging the facts and laying the foundations of knowledge and is a key process in knowledge formulation. The rate of development of knowledge depends on the rate of research in a special(a) field. With every passing day, the increased demand of detailed, authenticated and reliable knowledge, research is becoming most substantial process in every fiel d of knowledge.Some people may think that research is simply convocation information or so people, things or a certain state of personal business by some organizations, etc., but at that place are early(a)s who call the federal agency of progress in the life of the present global scenario, in which every nation come closer together and appear to depend in one way or the former(a) (Nadeem, 2011).The importance of research is know cosmoswide and positive countries are spending a lot to a expectanter extent to fight research culture. In a speech to the Royal conjunction in April 2010, German Chancellor Dr Angela Merkel explained that the prosperity of a expanse much(prenominal) as Germany must be sought through investment in research, procreation and science, and this to a disproportionate decimal point, (TheRoyalSociety, 2011).Developing countries are non in a competitive position to go parallel with the developed countries in field of education, despite of other fac ts and reasons lack of research lie educational approach is the main reason of it. Making countries progressed, as divide surrounded by developed and developing nations is clearly the educational placement (Sanyal Varghese, 2006)What we see nowadays the technology is making this world a global village, too many innovations taking place, ideas are getting converted into realities etc. is all collectable to the research by the researchers and their findings in them. We hear very often the war cry RD that is research and development, which means to develop something, research is at the first place. fit to the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development, RD refers to creative work undertaken on a organized basis in order to increase the stock of knowledge, including knowledge of man, culture and society, and the use of this stock of knowledge to devise new applications, (OECD Factbook 2008 Economic, Environmental and brotherly Statistics, 2008). General practices of research and development activities in universities facilitate the industries through their implementations. Research oriented universities assist the industries directly and indirectly directly by preparation of skills and indirectly by spillovers (Wu, 2007)In a research culture maximum people of a group, university, business firm, area, city and or country, sit together to indicate and solve the problems like corruption, water sharing, sparing crises, state security, scattering of resources and obligation etc. The meaning of research culture is also that each and every direction in the society must be aslope on reason, rational, logical, pragmatic and science, as an instrument of events and resolving problems, (Ahmed, 2006). Whereas universities are considered to be the birthplaces of research and researchers and lot has happened in the world to change the non-research culture to a research culture and to the change has been the most difficult part, (Cheetham, 2007).Situation in Pakistan in regards of research at universities is not impressive and Pakistan still lacks research culture at par with developed countries, (Lodhi A. , 2010). The research outfit by universities in Pakistan in terms of number of research existenceations as against the positive faculties of universities is not more than 13 per cent, (Qureshi, 2011). Pakistan is ranked 34 in the total of countries by research and development which spent 2.73 billion US$ in the year 2007. However, most RD funding in Pakistan is consumed by the military heavens (60%), (UNESCO, 2010). There are deficiencies in the quality of both skills and research output signal of the education sector. A viable quality assurance mechanism is essentially needful in Pakistan to change and improve the quality of output and cleverness of the higher education learning systems. (Mahmood Shafique, 2009)This current scenario of research culture leads results in the low yield of research output in terms of resear ch publications. HEC Pakistan took many initiatives in order to promote research culture in Universities. But these initiatives didnt payback the desired results, i.e. a healthy research culture in Pakistani universities. This paper aims to find out the reasons of these negative results in terms of reasons of lack of research culture.Extensive research has been carried out by various researchers to analyze the extent of research culture in different institutes and universities. Literature review indicates that most of these researches are more focused towards the instructors approaches towards research culture. The usage of students and the institutional policies in research are not critically analyzed. This paper is an attempt to cover the gap in this area of knowledge.It is matte up that research culture is not richly introduced and facilitated and the paper aims to find and identify what are the reasons might be for the current prevailing situation of lack of research culture in the universities. Either this is due to light infrastructure, non-serious style of students or teachers are not making it realized to students of the importance of research. Moreover, role of individual factors of students and institutional policies in a research culture is critically and buddy-buddyly analyzed in this paper.Ultimately we are looking to promote the research culture in Pakistani universities and also to rectify the problems from its root that are hindering in promoting the research culture.Literature ReviewIt was during the moment World War that governments, notably the US government, recognized the significant percentage make by university research, especially by the scientists and engineers, to their success in the war, (Sanyal Varghese, 2006). The world recognized university educational research, but it is more evident in the developed nations as compared to the developing world. According to UNCTAD, 2007 they reported that there are scarcely 94.3 scient ific researchers per million people in the least(prenominal) developed countries (LDCs), against 313 in the other developing countries (ODCs) and 3,728 in rich countries (high-income OECD). Enrolment in university take institutions (that is, tertiary school enrolment as a share of the fit age group) is only 3.5% in the LDCs, against 23% in ODCs and 69% in rich countries. (Vessuri, 2011). Just to quote to some examples, the number of enrollments in PhDs in Australia, there has been 300% increase from 9,298 in the year 1990 to 27,996 in 2000, (Stehlic, 2011). as well North America and Europe are considered as the home to the great majority of the worlds university faculty, as well as virtually all of the worlds high-quality institutions (Vessuri, 2011). On the other hand the scenario is worst in the least developed countries due to several reasons. One of them may be due to non domiciliateive living conditions. As reported by UNSTAD, 2007 countries like Haiti, Cape Verde, Samoa, Gambia and Somalia micturate wooly-minded more than half of their university-educated professionals in recent years be pass water they confound move to industrialized countries in search of better working and living conditions, (Mamdani, 2011) (Vessuri, 2011).Undoubtedly the knowledge divide between developing and developed countries is both deep and wide. A countrys existing RD activities are a reflection of its capacity to fashion knowledge, (Sanyal Varghese, 2006). Higher education and science must become more every bit distributed around the world if political tension is to be eased and the chances of economic and social development are to improve. The role of education and science in this process is taken as a accustomed a touch of departure and it is assumed that knowledge and skills will be at least as important for the future of the developing world in this cytosine as they were for developed and industrialized countries in the past, (Vessuri, 2011). Universities are the best places to implement the research culture. Humboldt, a German statesman, philologist and architect of the University, observed that the point of a university for both the teacher and the student is a common quest for knowledge or Wissenschaft, (Lueddeke, 2008). It is widely accepted that research, as the most important source of knowledge generation, occupies a critical position in promoting a nations prosperity and its citizens well- world in the knowledge-based era, (Li, Millwater, Hudson, 2008) and educational research helps by up the understanding of how students learn and how best to teach, (Morrell Carroll, 2010). Moreover research is not only helps solve the practical problems and brings about material improvements via high-tech products, it also provides insights and new ideas that enrich human understanding of various social, economic and cultural phenomena, (Li, Millwater, Hudson, 2008). As also explained by Patricia D. Morrell and James B. Carroll in thei r book called Conducting Educational Research, educational research is important inProposing theoriesTesting theoriesIncreasing our understanding improving breeding learning (Morrell Carroll, 2010)The worldwide higher education landscape and research and knowledge production sectors are undergoing a profound transformation compulsive by unprecedented global social and economic forces and are implant in an extremely complex reality, in which no self-evident choices are available and where actions have multiple effects in a dynamically interdependent environment (Vessuri, 2011). However integrating research and teaching in research-intensive universities is still an unresolved issue as we head into the 21st century, (Lueddeke, 2008) and amplification has taken place in blankly a limited part of the world (Vessuri, 2011). From the expanding literature, conferences and the reality on the ground, it does appear that most research-intensive universities across the eyeball still have not full realized the harmonization of the research-teaching relationship, (Lueddeke, 2008). Whereas teaching in a University is different, we use the same word in primary feather school, secondary school, TAFE, Teachers Colleges, CAEs etc but it is not the same. One of the major differences is of course the extent to which it (the teaching) is interwoven with research and our research principles, (Cheetham, 2007). The faculty in higher education institutions has traditionally been trifocal, consisting of teaching, research and community service/extension. University faculty members are unavoidable to become teachers, researchers, and service-oriented professionals, (Salazar-Clemea Almonte-Acosta). So finally we can say that, the thins in enrolment in higher education are an indicator of the outturn or narrowing gap between developing and developed countries in terms of research capacity, (Sanyal Varghese, 2006).Although universities in the developed world, as compared to the developing world, have firm traditions of research whereas universities in the developing world have bear strong teaching functions and weak research functions, (Nadeem, 2011) (Sanyal Varghese, 2006) (Salazar-Clemea Almonte-Acosta) (Lodhi A. S., 2011). Specifically lecture about Pakistan, she lacks research culture at par (Lodhi A. , 2010). The nation expects from universities to run to basic, applied and/or action research to help minimize the problems of the country to meet the future targets, (Qureshi, 2011). There are many reasons world given by different researchers and scholars for not implementing research culture in customary overall in the world and specifically for our country. Some of the reasons are extracted from different research paper and articlesPakistan is facing major challenges regarding population and socio-economic developments which take employment, resources, food, energy, sustainability and the look sharp for talent (Qureshi, 2011), because until and unless(prenominal) people will not get commodities (such(prenominal) as bread, cloth, and home) they cannot be turned for getting education, (Ahmed, 2006).Lack of incentives by the government, cases of plagiarism and proper facilities to involve research on technical and scientific subjects, small salary packages to teachers in government sector universities, (Lodhi A. , 2010).Some of the problems as indicated by Sabahat Sultan of Karachi university, multinational Relations Department are illiteracy standard of education, lack of resources, in cooperative attitude of government financial problems, lack of job oriented programs publishing goods, lack of proper training of research and professionalism (Sultan).Faculty members in the Pakistani universities are less enthusiastic about research, apart from a few amount of faculty members in different universities, others have not through with(p) voluntary research. Similarly students, they take up research render which is prim arily a compulsory component for the award of degree, but that is done under compulsion which does not ignite students inquiry skills nor attract teachers to go for voluntary research. (Nadeem, 2011).One of true factors, which equally are applicable to Pakistani environment, as indicted by Sanyal and Varghese 2006, Gender Disparities. As they say in their research paper, female researchers constitute a relatively small share in all countries except the CIS countries. Even the ratio found very less in the advanced countries like USA and Germany, (Sanyal Varghese, 2006) .The South Asian sphere also suffers from lack of linkages between public and private actors and no university-industry quislingism to speak of. It is noted in that, overall, Pakistan, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka seem better at producing basic knowledge than commercializing it, (UNESCO, 2010) (Wu, 2007)Introduction of research into early years of undergraduate education is not so obvious talking in the context of usan ce of Disciplinary Variation in Conceptualizing Research and Teaching, (Lueddeke, 2008).Research culture is mostly affected by personal and organizational characteristics with leaders being the most critical attribute, (Theodore Lynette, 2010) (Lodhi A. S., 2011).Research Culture requires stable political climate, (Theodore Lynette, 2010).MethodologyThis is research is based on quantitative data analytic thinking. info collected were analysed on statistical explanatory data anaysis techniques mainly due to the reason of our captive to find only problematic factors that are causing lack of research culture in Pakistani universities.Sample SizeExperts opinion was used to determine the sample size and a sample size of sample of 150 for was suggested.ToolQuantitative research was carried out with the help of a structured questionnaire developed by Santo, Engstrom, Reetz, Schweinle, Reed, 2009 (Santo, Engstrom, Reetz, Schweinle, Reed, 2009) and further used by Lodhi S. A., 2011 ( Lodhi A. S., 2011) who modied the tool on the basis of his experiences to conduct his research in the Pakistani univerristies context. We modified the tool accordingly with the help of an expert for our research work to be conducted specially on students rather than on teachers and or faculty members in the universities.RespondentsSample population consists of a blend of students from different areas of study including engineering, medical, humanities, social sciences and management. Due to time and financial constraints, out of different private and public sector universities in Pakistan, we selected seven universities only from Lahore and Islamabad.The educational background of the respondents was such that they were both male and female students accompanied in bachelors and know degree courses in their perspective universities. Out of 150 students 105 were from bachelors and 45 respondents were masters degree programs. 83 of them were male and liberalization, i.e. 67 were femal e students.Sampling technique and data collection procedureMultistage sampling was conducted using a combination of snowball sampling, stratified sampling and random sampling techniques to collect the data that resulted in a diverse and unbiased population sampling. 186 questionnaires were got filled out of which 150 questionnaires were used for the abridgment purpose. Total time of 3 months was consumed in data collection and then entered in SPSS (version 17) and Microsoft Excel for further analysis.Data AnalysisThis quantitative study intends to find out the factors causing hindrances in a healthy research culture by focusing on individual factors of students or the institutional and leadership factors.All items in the questionnaire were one by one analyzed through univariant analysis. Initially, frequencies, means, standard deviations, histograms and percentages were used to analyze the responses. Through the analysis of the all questions, few individual and institutional facto rs were identified that are pay major contribution towards creating lack of research culture in Pakistani universities. The problematic factors were then further categorized to favorable conditions and discriminatory conditions. prospering conditions include the responses that were responded as powerfully adjudge and agree patterns. Whereas unfavorable conditions include the responses that were in strongly disagree and disagree and Neither Agree Nor disagree patterns. These factors were deeply analyzed.Descriptive StatisticsDescriptive statistics are presented in Table 1 depicting means and SDs of all the items in the questionnaire. Means were in wheel from 2.45 to 3.74 with SDs in range from 0.897 to 1.244.The overall behavior of the respondents was such that they were neither strongly disagreed nor strongly agreed in their views about each question so making the scenario middleware leaving a feel that students are not fully aware of the research practices as well as they don t really bring off about the situations regarding research culture prevalent in their universities. This behavioral trend of respondents makes the situation very vague uncertain in terms of awareness about research culture and its factors.Frequency TablesTo know the in abstruseness details of how respondents responded to each of the item in the questionnaire, we used frequency tables which gave us results in the form of frequencies and their subsequent percentages that how many out 150 students responded as strongly disagree or disagree or neither agree nor disagree or agree or strongly agree in the whole dataset. This technique helped us known that how many students, majority of them, think alike about the problems those were posed in the questionnaire. It was, ultimately, highly take to identify the most problematic factors which may cause impedement in the growth of research culture in the universities. Most of the responses, also can be seen from the results of descriptive statistics, were centered to a middle are of histogram, i.e. responses ranging from resist to Agree with responses record as Strongly Disagree or Strongly Agree. However our entertain was not to see that how different respondents responded to a certain type of questions that was posed, but to find the problems creating hindrances in the growth of research culture in Pakistani Universities. The below findings are describing the most problematic factorsResearch FindingsThe detailed analysis of the responses enabled us to identify that how students think of each and every problem say in the questionnaire. But it was very needed to analyze and highlight those problems which are more critical and hence need special attention in order to bring positivity in the prevailing situation of research and research output in Pakistani Universities. To highlight such problems we delimit a rule of thumb that responses being answered as Strongly Disagree, Disagree or Neither Agree or Nor Disagree is unfavorable conditions and responses answered as Agree and Strongly Agree is favorable conditions. We further operationally defined that if cumulative percentage of unfavorable conditions equals or greater than 60% it shows characteristics of problematic factor which should be eliminated.The other way to see the problematic factors is to look at the means of the responses in the questions. Questions having a mean less than 3 are problematic areas and they can be cross verified with the criteria being set preceding(prenominal) except for the question of At least monthly, I have substantive uninterrupted conversations about research and writing with colleagues in my university whose mean is 2.98 but cumulative percentage of unflavored answers is 59.3%.The factors which are highlighted problematic in the dataset is depicted below in the below figure.Out of the cardinal above highlighted problematic factors, first four of them belong to Individual Factors and rest four of them b elongs to Institutional and Organizational Factors. These factors includeI have/had an unassigned instruct either in my department or in other departments/schools who provides (or provided) me with valuable guidance in research.Assigned mentor and unassigned mentor are up to students interests weather they approach to them to discuss the research topics and to get pieces of advice from them or not. Although in both the cases the responses from the students are unfavorable but the criteria equal to or greater than 60% cumulative percentages being set dont book us to depict the assigned mentor question in the above bar graph figure but its importance cant be denied if 59.3% people answer unfavorably. Anyways the scenario of unassigned mentor is clearly problematic as 71.3% people responded in unflavored manner.I have a system that allows me to protect periods of uninterrupted time to language research activities.Students enter unfavorable concerns equal to 75.3% which means our s tudents do not have such systems where they can save their uninterrupted time to address their research activities. Although a fair amount of students answered Agree when they were asked about having passable time for doing their research activities, but they are not into practices of saving uninterrupted times specifically to address the research activities.Up-to-date in qualitative research design and analysis64% of the students record their responses as unflavored as they see themselves weak in qualitative research design and analysis because they are not currently up-to-date with the qualitative research design.Up-to-date in publishing company-hunting skills (e.g. identifying countenance journal/conference/exhibitions, understanding their procedures and submission rating for your research)Although our students believe that they are up-to-date in writing skill, presentation skills, IT skills (e.g. Microsoft Office, Design and Analysis Tools, air Tools), and using relevant so ftware for data-collection and analysis (e.g. SPSS, Nvivo, EndNote, etc.) but when it comes to their up-to-dated skills in publisher hunting for identifying appropriate journal/conference/exhibitions, understanding their procedures and submission evaluation for their research they are not well up-to-dated as 68% students recorded unflavored conditions.At least weekly, I have substantive uninterrupted conversations about research and writing with colleagues in my university72% of the people responded unfavorably as they feel they do not converse weekly about their research topics with their fellow colleagues in the university.I have entrance fee to nice human resources such as secretarial life, support staff etc., to conduct my research projects66% of the students stated that they do not have access to adequate human resources such as secretarial support, support staff etc. in their universities to conduct their research projects.My university provides me adequate financial suppo rt to give out to academic conferences/exhibitions within PakistanInterestingly the most problematic factor of all is the one stated above i.e. universities provide financial support to travel to academic conferences and exhibitions within Pakistan where more than 83% people recorded their concerns unflavored.My university provides me adequate administrative support to apply for travel grants from HEC or other external sources for presentation of paper in academic conferences within Pakistan.In the similar pattern about 70% students answered unfavorably that their universities provide adequate administrative support to apply for travel grants from HEC or other external sources for presentation of paper in academic conferences within Pakistan. The figure of 70% is less than of 83% in the above question may be due to readily available HEC support or due to HECs itself selling campaign but, as per the collected data, support from universities in this regard of applying for travel gra nts from HEC or other external sources is minimal.ConclusionThe studies show that universities play a prominent role in knowledge production, particularly in the gauzy or basic research fields, (Li, Millwater, Hudson, 2008). A lot of effort is being made in the developed and developing world to make their universities as research centers, though knowledge divide is deep and is heavily canted in favor of developing countries (Sanyal Varghese, 2006). For a country like Pakistan is where there are so many social economic and security problems, the solutions lies in inculcating the research culture at higher education level. In Pakistani universities students need direction towards conducting research. Exposure of our students towards serious research is minimal or no as very minimum number of students have their papers published in worlds journals and publications, hence the importance of research is not fully known by them. Teachers and management, however, can play a pivotal role to set the university campuses onto the high class seats of research centers and ultimately making the students ready for taking part in the prosperity of the nation. These are the teachers and management which can give the light of wisdom to the educating pupils that they have to come in the competition of conducting research or our nation should get ready to become flat from the face of this earth. Study also highlighted the specific problems relating to individual and institutional leadership factors causing the reasons of lack of research culture. It was noted that due to the moderate correlation existence between the stated two variables, present research output of individuals can be increased by controlling the problematic factors as identified in institutional and leadership factors list, i.e. once the institutions develop systems for students to conduct their research work, they have the ability to capitalize on the things with their new and restless ideas.ImplicationsI n the light of the findings and the literature review, some of implications can be made to introduce the research culture into the students. These are enumerated as below disjoined centers for research should be made with several research groups to promote the cause of research culture in universities. These centers should be granted grants and finance for their fluent operations. A number of students will be taking part actively under the umbrella of these research centers.Teachers having no research experience or having not appeared in any international research journals/conferences with their papers are indeed a decline to research culture, (Cheetham, 2007). In our universities, well have to make it sure that our teachers are actively involved in conducting researches as ultimately theyll be able to translate the same habit to their students and if needed inductions of new highly qualified and trained tutors having experience in research can be made.Top management should involve into the matter of concern and should make the environment such that students get all those tools that are required to write an international research paper, e.g. availability of liter

The High Performance Concrete Construction Essay

The risque Performance cover Construction Essay cover ad multifariousnesssConstruction literalsTable of ContentsChapter 1IntroductionIntroductionThe high-performance cover (HPC) is a meltture of many materials normally 5-10. The interaction among these materials is the reason of the various workability cases, and overly the different ratios and portions added ca dos this variability. Testing the cover is non the best solution for examining the workability properties, The testing process of the concrete need ample number of labor and materials, which is not cheap. there is, therefore, a need to forebode the workability of concrete through a simpler, cheaper laboratory approach. Concrete workability is dened, according to American Concrete set (ACI), as the ease of pla cementum of concrete and is unremarkably quantied by the result of the subside c wiz test.Rheological tests on cement library paste were utilize to select the fount and dosage of mineral admixtures that bankrupt concrete workability. The conclusions reached based on cement paste tests were pass by concrete objurgate tests. It was also deemed interesting to comp atomic number 18 the primeval parameters ( exit stress and viscosity) measured with a uid rheometer with the results from two commonly use semiempirical tests, the minislump and the Marsh cone tests. If a relationship could be established, the empirical tests could be used to design materials for a given buckle under stress and viscosity or, at the very least, rank different materials base on yield stress or viscosity. The decision to study the inuence of mineral admixtures was dictated by the recent increase in use of mineral admixtures for improve concrete durability. Economics ( downcaster cement requirement) and env ironmental considerations suck up also had a role in the growth of mineral admixture usage. The lower cement requirement also leads to a reduction for carbon dioxide gene swand by the take of ceme nt, while the use of a mineral admixture utilizes a crossroad that would ordinarily be bound for the land ll. Thus, there is a reprise environmental benet from using mineral admixtures.Chapter 2Literature check overBackgroundConcrete workability characterizationConcrete workability cannot necessarily be sacriced for improved hardened properties, much(prenominal) as durability or military force. Workability is typically quantied in the eld by the result of the slump cone tet. Neverthe slight, a survey conducted by the National Ready-Mixed Concrete Association (NRMCA) and the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) determined that, for I-IPC, the slump cone order is not deterrent example of the ease of handling HPC in the eld. It was reported that concrete mixtures with the same(p) slump might not behave the same elbow room during placement. This implies that the slump value does not give enough data to fully characterize concrete ow.In the construction eld, term s ilk workability, owability, and cohesion be used, sometimes interchangeably, to hound the behavior of concrete under ow. The denitions of these terms argon very subjective. Therefore, there is a need for a more rndamental and quantitative exposition of concrete ow. Rheological measurements of concent enjoind suspensions can be used to describe the ow of concrete. Numerous reoceanrchers have successrlly used the Bingharn equation. Two parameters dene the ow yield stress and pliant viscosity. Yield stress is related to slump, but plastic viscosity is usually ignored because only a few type of instruments exist to measure it. However, the viscosity may be related to properties such as stickiness, p1aceability, affectionatenessability, and nishability. In addition, segregation could be dened as the ability of the union to migrate (or sink) in the cement paste. This phenomenon is linked to the viscosity of the cement paste and the concrete mixture design. Therefore, methods to pr edict concrete workability need to take into sum up more than just the yield stress.What ar Admixtures?Admixture is a material or a combination of different materials that be added to the concrete during coalesce to enhance a property or more properties of the concrete mix, and providing it with freshly features that suits the need either if it is do by central batching plants, pre-stressed concrete factories or in- rank mix. Admixtures may enhance the workability, durability or strong suit of concrete. They can also be used to overcome extreme circumstances such as insensate or white weather w lower irrigate-cement ratio.Admixtures atomic number 18 materials separate than the main concrete mix components ( piss, cement, aggregate) which means that the admixture is added to the mixing piss before or during the mixing process to give the concrete the postulate properties, taking into consideration that there be some admixtures are added later on a certain duration after mixing.Admixtures are shared into 2 types according to origin chemical admixtures and mineral admixtures.Chemical admixturesThey are materials that are found as fine particles or liquid and are added to the concrete to enhance it and give precise properties that are unobtainable in plain concrete mixtures. Usually, admixture quantities are not more than 5% of the mass of cement and are put into the concrete at the close of mixing. Public kinds of admixtures are.Accelerators that increase the speed of the hardening of the concrete. Normal materials utilized are calcium chloride, calcium nitrate and sodium nitrate. However, using chlorides could cause eat in the steel underpinning and it is banned in a some states, so nitrates are recommended.Retarders sluggish the hardening of the concrete and are utilized in colossal or tough propagates whereas partial setting before the dispense is finished is undesirable. Normal polyol retarders are sugar, sucrose, sodium gluconate, gl ucose, citric acid, and tartaric acid. institutionalise entrainments makes very polished pedigree bubbles intimate the concrete during the batching process. It helps in protect it from the harm make by frequent freezing and defrosting cycles. It also makes better workability, better consistency, less segregation and less bleeding. More than 80% of concrete pavements in the ground forces are made of air-entrained admixtures. Entrapped air, are huge air voids while entrained air, are very small voids range from 10 to molarity micrometers. The admixture may be a liquid added during mixing or a powder mixed with the cement.Plasticizers conflagrate the workability of the fresh concrete permitting it be easily placed, without joining efforts. Plasticizers can be utilized to slack the mental object of water of concrete as keeping the workability, thats why they are called sometimes water-reducers. This action improves its strength and durability properties.Super plasticizers (Also cognize as High Range Water Reducers HRWR) They have the ability to reduce the amount of water needed for the concrete by 12-40% of the needed water. They produce concrete with the same workability but with lower water bailiwick ratio, they are also used to make highly flowable concrete. HRWR made out of polyether-polycarboxylates have higher(prenominal) efficiency and are used more widely. HRWR are added often in the site because of its low workability block, it increases the time of setting but increases the flowability for a longer period. Concrete that have HRWR in it has higher strength than that predicted by water circumscribe ratio, as the water bailiwick is not high so the permeableness and shrinkage are lowered but the durability is increased.Corrosion inhibitors rust fungus of steel reinforcement is a huge problem that encounters the durability of the strengthen concrete structures, from the causesof rusting of steel are the chlorides, they come from many sources like the deicing salts used to melt ice in winter or from sea water or they may come from the admixtures. From the ways of resisting the rust resulting from chloride is the use of corrosion inhibitors admixtures, they are added to the concrete during mixing to protect the steel by delaying the debut of rusting and also belittle the rate of rusting after it starts. They last for many years after the setting of concrete.Mineral admixturesThere are inorganic materials having pozzolanic characteristics. These extremely fine-grained materials are added to the concrete mixture to enhance the properties of concrete or as a substitute for the cement, they decrease cost, permeability, enhance the strength and change other concrete characteristics, from the types of mineral admixtures areFly alter tree A by-product of electrical coal-fired producing plants and can divert according to source it is utilized to partly substitute the cement. The particles of fly modify are made of orbicular glassy particles, its use has started in the USA in the 1930s, tests has proven that concrete can be replaced by one third with fly ash. Experiments made on high strength concrete has shown that its strength levels were up to 100 MPa at age of one year. duck soup-entrainment admixtures peradventure required because of the carbon inside the fly ash.Ground granulated resound furnace slag (GGBFS or GGBS) is a product of made when the molten iron is put rapidly in water to decrease its temperature, it is crystalline make granular product of high adhesion, and so it be work as a substitute for part of the cement, the about favorable ratio is 50% of the cement if there is no salts and 25% if there is.Silica bullet A by-product aims to achieve both high strength and low permeability requirements made out of the creation of silicon and ferrosilicon alloys. Silica smack is compared to fly ash. The size of its particle is smaller by 100 times. This makes a higher ratio between surface and volume and a way lusher reaction. Silica fume is utilized to raise the concrete strength and durability, but usually superplastisizers are needed for the workability.High reactivity Metakaolin (HRM) the concrete made using metakaolin has the same strength and durability of the concrete made using silica fume. As silica fume is normally obscure gray or black in color, high-reactivity metakaolin is normally brilliant light in color, creating it the favored choice for architectural concrete whereas emergence is important.Types of Admixtures1. billet entraining admixturesThey are liquid chemicals that are added to the concrete during mixing to produce small air bubbles that are called entrained air. The air helps the concrete to resist the damage made by thawing, freezing and deicing salt. In hard concrete, the air enhances workability and decreases the bleeding and the segregation.Air entrainment is not important for the concrete used inside the structures as it is not exposed to either freezing or thawing, It ought to be evaded for concrete flatwork that have a flat troweled finish. In high cement subject area concretes, entrained will cut strength by 5% for every individual 1% of air added but in low cement content concretes, adding air has less result and could even cause a chagrin increased strength due to decreased water demand for needed slump.2. Water reducersAre utilized for two purposes (1) to decrease the water content in plastic concrete and rise its strength (2) to attain higher slump without the need of adding water. Water-reducers will usually cut the needed water content of a concrete combination for a given slump. These admixtures disperse the cement particles in concrete and create otiose efcient use of cement. This rises strength or permits the cement content to be decreased as maintaining the same strength. Water-reducers are utilized to rise slump of concrete lacking adding water and are functional for impelling concrete and in ho t meteorologic conditions to offset the increased water demand. A little water-reducers could aggravate the rate of slump defeat alongside time.Mid-range water reducers are nowadays usually utilized and they have a larger skill to cut the water content. These admixtures are accepted as they enhance the finishability of concrete atwork.3. RetardersAre chemicals that duck the early hardening of concrete by an hour or more. Retarders are regularly used in hot climatic conditions to counter the cursorily hardening caused by elevated temperatures. For colossal jobs, or in hot climate, specify concrete alongside retarder to permit extra period for pumping and nishing. nigh retarders additionally work as reducers.4. AcceleratorsReduce the early hardening period of concrete and give higher strength after small period. They do not work as an antifreeze they decrease the time of the hardening and rate of strength increase, thus the concrete would be stronger to endure damage from cold in c hilly weather. Accelerators are additionally utilized in fast trail assembly that needs early removal of forms.Accelerating admixtures consists of two types chloride and non-chloride based. iodine of the extra competent and frugal is calcium chloride that is obtainable in mobile or ake form. For non-reinforced concrete, The CaCl can be utilized to an amount of 2% by the heaviness of the cement due to worries of corrosion of reinforcement instigated by Cl.Pre-stressed concrete and concrete that have aluminum or invigorated metal inside it ought not to have chloride-based materials because of the increased possibility for the rusting of the metal. Non-chloride established accelerators are utilized whereas there is fear of rusting of embedded metals or concrete reinforcement.5. HIGH RANGE WATER-REDUCERS (HRWR)It is a distinct type of water-reducer. Also known as, super plasticizers, HRWRs decrease the water content of a concrete mix by 12% to 25%. HRWRs are consequently utilized to r aise the strength and decrease permeability of concrete by decreasing the water content in the mix or considerably raise the slump to make owing concrete lacking the addition of any extra water. These admixtures are vital for elevated strength and enhanced concrete mixes that have higher contents of adhesive materials and mixes having silica fume.Beside these kinds of admixtures, there are other materials obtainable for improving concrete characteristics for different types of applications. These products include rust resistors admixtures that decrease shrinkage, anti-washout admixtures, and admixtures to decrease possibility for alkali aggregate reactivity, admixtures that helps pumping and a collection of colours and products that improves the concrete aesthetics.Fly Ash1 ProductionFly ash is a bi-product resulted from the finely divided residues generated from the combustion of coal electrically in thermal power plants the dust collection system removes the fly ash, as a fine pa rticulate residue, from the combustion gases before they are discharged into the atmosphere. The particles are finer than cement usually and consist off global glassy particles.2 PropertiesPermeabilityThe fly ash reacts with the calcium hydrated oxide chemically during the hydration process forming calcium aluminate and calcium silicate hydrate which decreases the risk of percolation of calcium hydroxide and the permeability of concrete. The fly ash enhances the permeability of concrete also by decreasing the ratio of water to cement, which decreases the volume of pores. Its spherical shape also enhances the consolidation of concrete which reduces permeability.UseFly ash has a spherical shape that allows it to create a ball bursting charge effect in the mix which improves the workability without increasing the water and also helps in increasing the pump-ability by decreasing the friction between the concrete and the pump line. It also increases the concrete pump-ability by incre asing its cohesion and making it less subject to segregation. It also increases the gaining of strength of mixes for periods much longer than that of Portland cement only.The most important use of fly ash is that it increases the life cycle presentiment and durability. It also increases the resistance of corrosion of concrete reinforcement.Fly ash is used in concrete by replacing a portion of the Portland cement that may goes up to 30% of the total cement mix.

Strategies for Disaster Risk Management

Strategies for calamity seek oversightINTRODUCTION I. Background congenital accidents gravel al airs get downd a panic to ontogenesis. Developing countries atomic form 18 unremarkably outlying(prenominal)away less thoroughly slipd than industrialised ones to carry off in effect with incidents that occur out of the blue. The root priority mustiness be to lop heaps (men, women and young plenty) vulner superpower to earthy reckons much(prenominal) as earthquakes, floods and storms and to vitiate the return of new ventures, in pasture to secure the progress of vexment. misfortune chance concern is thitherfore crucial to sustainable development. It is closely conjugated with the overarching millennium victimization Goal (MDG) of reducing meagerness (M D G 1) in galore(postnominal) let outs of the terra firma this goal kitty non be achieved without it.In its traverse Towards Halving Poverty the German Government again furiousnessed this standof f contingency relief on its own is non liberal. In coiffure to turn in military personnel lives stiffly and protect indivi triples and economies from physical maltreat in the hanker term, e trulything contingent must be done to begin with a essential tragedy occurs to minimise the trespass. possibility pr compositors caseion is and then an crucial part of any sustainable development dodging. (Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development (B M Z), 2004 page32)In novel old age the need for happening en peril of exposurement steering has devise upd as a top of the break in the consequence of damaging inwrought events. or so spherical trends (such as modification magnitude parking argonawealth pressure on inbred resources in more(prenominal) or less regions, urbanisation and getup scotch disparities) argon samely to further amplify the dangers arising from an increase in the number and intensity of gaugeous rude(a) events. As a exit of temper counterchange, adventure adventure precaution is facing ch all in allenges on an new scale. In conjunction with these developments, we be seeing a increment guess of c essays and conflicts, in particular those arising from competition for vital resources. By dealing reservely and gender-sensitively with innate(p) hazards and mode change, however, we green goddess go some way to def apply the conflict authorisation.Disaster peril wariness is first and firstly the state of the stirred country. It is especially substantial in countries exposed to study inbred essays. In such countries, elements of catastrophe riskiness prudence should progressively be incorporated as standard pract drinking glass into national development strategies (such as poverty reducing strategies) and separate(a)(a) local, national sees. This presupposes that the statutory and institutional textile required is in pip. Entry points for effective action must be ide ntified for to for each(prenominal) one one sector. The examples presented in this familiaration scram shown that their randomness of incident risks fanny be addressed at many takes. However, it is eer consequential that the mountain potentially shanghaied argon sensitised and accustomed the selective information they need, so that they elicit react promptly they be at present knobbed at the scene of the event.Natural hazards and haps ar events that atomic number 18 much result in uplifted demise tolls and pear-shaped economical losses which is sound away becoming a major(ip) bear on to worldwide federation because of large tinct of liveness losses and economic losses in create countries. Why is wadcel hazards and misadventures occurring so patronizely now a old age and how did man increases vulner strength. Population growth, run away organization, high rise building, uses of express rescores, environment damage etc ar just some of th e component part explaining the sources of prevalent congenital hazards which go ons to tender and material casualties in case of chance. If at that place is a risk of pictorial hazard because large universe of discourse reach is well-nigh defenceless and the impact of tragedy give to a fault be high. The overhauled-down way to fuck with catastrophe was using inform in the first place disaster strikes and nip relief championsequently disaster occurs and the political relation activity berth would totally coquet its role in make out disaster. This mount is comme il faut to skip losses in disaster to acceptable levels repayable to habitual innate(p) disaster taking place and large of vivification and economic losses, international residential territory came to the point that by implanting Community family forethought Approach is a operation in which at-risk communities ar livelyly occupied in the identification, compend, treatment, monitorin g and evaluation of disaster risks in found to trim back their vulnerabilities and enhance their capacities Disasters can fail uncontrollable, once the event has got underway. If the partnership were not come up prep bed, control over the disaster event would be ordinarily lost during its detail. If each individual in the association is old(prenominal) with shipway of coping and precautionary measures, past the commotion by a disaster can be reduced. This Community Base Approach where federation plays an secure role with the accommodate of Government, non-government institution agencies. The involvement of the communities is the key manifestation for the sustain ability of community of interests for disaster reduction. External agencies, like government, non-government organizations whitethorn begin and enforce community level programs before and by and by disasters. However, such initiative many durations discontinue once the external support is ended. in that spatial relation can be many reasons behind this leave out of sustainability, some of which may be the neglect of partnership, participation, empowerment and ownership of local communities. wholly communities befuddle some vitally great assets to deal with disasters. These may include association of disaster go of monition signs, locally safe and unguarded studys, experience of past disasters, regularitys of survival of the fittest and societal relations that be a great deal vitally important in coping with crisis. Local communities have an active part to play before and after disasters so it is in that respectfore important to involve people in finality reservation on policies and strategies that should be embraceed for their development in the community. The fair game of this management is to prepare community develop hazards mitigation plans before disaster strikes. An effective plan give improve communitys ability to deal with innate(p) disasters and most efficacious and effective ways to reduce losses to flavor and property. Preparing a plan leave alone stick out the following benefits to the community rationalise public and private damage costsReduce cordial, emotional, and economic disruption step-up access to funding sources for hazard mitigation projectsImprove ability to apparatus post-disaster reco real projects by using risk management tools. more than number of lives can be saved during the first few hours after disaster has occurred by local response teams, before athletic supporter arrives from elsewhere.The legion(predicate) problems of survival and health resulting from a disaster are dealt with more efficiently, if the community is active and well organized.The social and economic cost of natural disasters has increase in recent eld out-of-pocket to tribe growth, change in nation use digits, migration and unplanned urbanization, environmental degradation and orbicular clime change.16 In addition to the l oss of lives and major destruction of economic and social infrastructure, natural disasters set back poverty reduction programs and cause enjoyment of government funds to pay for reconstruction and reco very efforts. There has been low globe psycho compendium of the longer-term impacts of disasters in the Philippines scarce if annual infrastructure losses and colligate diversion of scarce public resources must ultimately have an impact on the countrys long-term sustainable developmentII. Re expect Questions by-line are the three seek questions on which I ordain lend my look for.In the first part, I give spot the hazards and their impact on deuce-ace instauration countries and thus I leave analyze what are the risks associated with the natural disasters in third world countries.In the second part, I go out illustrate the case to support the discussion above, and impact of humor change and single-valued function of disaster attached rural range of each southea st Asian countries.1. Research MethodologyThe search onion described by gibe Saunders, Philip Lewis and Adrian Thornhill (2006) is utilize to analyze the philosophy, onward motion and scheme of explore.a) PhilosophyThe major philosophy use in this investigate utilize is Realism. According to Saunders, Lewis Thornhill (2007), realism is a branch of epistemology which is similar to positivism in that it assumes a scientific burn up to the development of knowledge. This assumption underpins the charm of info and the understanding of that entropy. Bhaskar (1989) vies that we can identify what we dont see with the practical and theoretical processes of the social sciences. The object lens of the inquiry is to assess the impact of climate change and mapping of disaster wedded area of each southbound Asian countries. so ontology is not the right choice for this particular seek as according to Saunders, Lewis Thornhill (2007), it is concerned with the genius of realit y.b) ApproachThe look into has employed inductive as well as deductive prelude. Since, one of the main(prenominal) objectives of the enquiry is to out the impact of climate change and mapping of disaster given over area of each South Asian countries, therefore inductive go about has been use extensively. solo where there is a requirement of analyzing the decimal information, deductive approach leave alone be employ.The research approach fixs design and gives the researcher the opportunity to assure how each of the various approaches may contri only whene to, or limit, his study (Creswell, 2003). For research surmisal there are deuce main approaches which are primarily utilise i.e. deductive and inductive approach. Firstly the epitome of the store entropy, and then a theory or hypothesis is formulated, this is inductive approach. In contrast, a deductive approach is where, after reviewing the existing theory, hypothesis is developed which is then time-tested by con ducting a research (Bryman, and Bell 2007)The study for leave behind follow Inductive approach for two reasons. In the first place the research involves observation of past disasters, impact of this disaster with s of death and economic losses and shortly number of people liveness in prone disaster areas. In the second place, the inductive approach appears more assign to the purpose of this study which is to gather the problem facing to implementing disaster management plan and roles of public and private sector in do schema and policies with sustainability of the plan.c) StrategyThere are two types of research strategies i.e. soft and numeric. soft research strategy is the general orientation to conduct chore research. It unremarkably center ones on words instead of statistical analysis of selective information. It normally involves inductive approach to the relationship of theory and research. The main groom is to dedicate a theory. Interviewing the expatriate is the main purpose of this research (Bryman and Bell, 2007).On the different progress, quantitative research strategy focuses more on the quantification in collection and analysis of information. It usually involves deductive approach to the relationship of theory and research. examen the theories in the main purpose in quantitative research (Bryman and Bell, 2007)Some common contrasts between qualitative and quantitative research.Qualitative denary words poemPoint of views of participants Point of views of researchersResearcher close Researcher outback(a) opening emergent Theory testing mathematical operation Static uncrystallised structureContextual understanding GeneralizedRich, deep data Hard, tested dataMicro MacroMeaning BehaviourNatural settings coloured settings(Source Bryman and Bell, 2007 426)The strategy of this research protract maintain some(prenominal) strategy but quantitative testament be more domains on qualitative strategy. Quantitative strategy entrust give up found on which qualitative strategy entrust faceable on. According to Burgess, 1982 There are several reasons for using the qualitative research. First reason is the mental picture of the researcher which is based upon the research experience. The new(prenominal)(a) important point is that most researchers use this method, hoping that their work has transmit or potential relevance for academic as well as non-academic audiences. all(a) methods have gains and disadvantages but some methods are still amend than the new(prenominal) in order to obtain simple data. Small metrical composition of participants are used to obtain primary data in this research. In-depth audience is a form of conversation. (Burgess, 1982)d) Data synopsis ApproachThe research is in the first place comprised of qualitative data and give be inductive in spirit hence analytical induction approach pull up stakes be used to make the critical remarks. Other theories do not fill in with the ph ilosophy, approach and strategy of the research and cannot be used for that reason.Geographic tuition governing body (GIS) tools help to answer questions like who is vulnerable, where they are and why they are vulnerable. GIS was used to identify vulnerable areas using statistical tools. Although the data generated are usually integrated in the form of tables, graphs and/or charts, maps have the advantage of presenting data in an easily accessible, readily visible and eye-catching manner. The resulting maps agree information from variant sectors to provide an immediately nationwide picture of the geographical dispersion of vulnerable chemical group. By providing a visual overview on the major issues, maps shine up gaps and shortfalls in information and thus areas needing attention. A GIS based approach is useful for highly disaggregated data it can easily perform statistical analysis as well as graphic presentation.2. Sampling consume universe consists of a number of third world countries such as India, Bangaldesh and Pakistan which are the focus of some of the key disaster in recent years will be under the main focus. Because of the special temperament of this research, the data collection points are huge. Henry (1990) advised against using opportunity sample technique for sample population of less than 50. Because of the short time dyad and monetary constraints the research will employ homogenous try technique. Saunders, Lewis Thornhill (2007) argue that homogenous sampling technique focuses on one sub group in which all the sample members are similar. This will help us to cover the topic in detail.3. Data CollectionThe research employees both(prenominal) qualitative and quantitative data techniques to clear conclusions. However, main emphasis will be given to collect and analyze the qualitative data. The plan of the research will be mainly to use primary data collected from both primary and second-string sources. In this approach differe nt historic data were used to point out the areas and communities which experienced the disaster attitude in the past and their present risk and degree of exposure. This is more like, acquire from past mistake and applying new strategy and plan which was absentminded in the past. This approach is very helpful in making strategy, as certain(prenominal) policies, identifying natural hazard area and communities and implanting plan.According to Jackson (1994) the value of a research is related to its data collection methods and importantly, whether or not it includes both indirect and primary data. Data for the study were collected in two sources primary and secondary sources. Both primary and secondary data sources were canvas together to strengths the material and minimize their weaknesses by combining them in decent way. There are many methods to collect the primary data, but this research will more focus on literature review, case studies, bibliography, questionnaire and GIS techniques. All these method can be qualitative and quantitative in record more very much than not secondary data of this study included records and latest reports addressable from the street credibility disaster database. Other sources such as articles, textbooks, journals, annual reports, websites etc were too very helpful and used to support reports.Two types of data were used for obtaining data from different reports. Historic data and GIS (geographic Information System) based mapping data.a) secondary coil Sources of DataSecondary data will be of tip greatness in this research. Information will be acquired from reliable sources. antecedency will be given to government sources in order to provide high-fidelity information. Online website such as Business Monitor Online will be used comprehensively because they contain most up-to-date information. Journals and articles will be used extensively as well because explanation of data from these sources will be more accur ate. This research will in addition include statistical analysis where information will be easily accessible from attach to reports, IMF Reports, demesne Bank Reports and government websites.4. Limitations of the ResearchThere will be a lot of limitations and hindrances in carrying out the desired research. There are limitations associated with the on hand(predicate) and up to date data on the third world countries. The questionnaire in research project is to support findings which will be pull from secondary data but insufficient funds and time restriction may hold back the collection of primary data. The qualitative data analysis withal poses little terror because it may involve adult male model errors.3. Literature Review 3.1 IntroductionIn this chapter the objectives of the study will focus on the impact of climate change and mapping of disaster prone area of each South Asian countries. Research of this mapping is mapped on the base of district level which covers whole region of South Asia. zone is divided up according to Administrative division of its related country. So the size, population, geological location and climate physical body will vary each other although it is set in same provinces. The mapping of these districts is related to high and mean(a) level of risk to natural events is included in this table. Some district has been promoted to disaster prone district although there have been no assure of such natural events in past but due to certain factors like rises of sea level, earth quake zone, change in climate condition etc, makes these districts highly exposed to natural events in future. Such as Maldives, although there have been no evidence of tsunami for past 100 years but due to rise in sea level and fit(p) in earth quake zone whole Maldives is at high risk to flood and tsunami.This table is made on the bases of related to human life and economic losses. So Natural event like feral kick up which is very frequent in N epal and Burma has been excluded from the table because the impact on human lifes and economic losses are very low, although its impact on environmental is very high.3.2 DisasterThe term disaster can be define as A serious disruption of the functioning of society, create far-flung human, material or environmental losses which exceed the ability of attained society to cope using only its own resources.This capriciousness of disaster draws a distinction between sudden and slow bombardment disasters.Amongst natural disasters extreme drouths are the only ones that are slow encroachment by record. The causes and effects of a drought disaster are far more difficult to ascertain than sudden natural events such as earthquakes, tsunamis or landslides. Due to the gradual nature of the process, often taking place over months and even years, the causes are more complex and it is often only possible to identify the effects in at a time.However, not every extreme natural event is a disaste r. A volcanic eruption in an slothful area is a natural event but not a disaster. Floods can overly have many beneficial effects the earth is supplied with juvenile nutrients and made more fertile again, resulting in higher yields. So, disasters continuously have untoward impacts but specific approaches to them must cater for the dual nature of such events, i.e. disaster risk management searches to maintain the authoritative impacts magical spell reducing the adverse meanings of extreme natural events.3.2 Disaster risk of infection guidanceTechnical Cooperation defines disaster risk management as a series of actions (programmes, projects and/or measures) and instruments expressly aimed at reducing disaster risk in be regions, and mitigating the extent of disasters.Disaster risk management includes risk assessment, disaster legal profession and mitigation and disaster provision. It is used in the international arguing to underscore the current trend of taking a proac tive approach to hazards posed by extreme natural phenomena. The intention is a comprehensive reduction in disaster risk themeing for all the factors that grant to risk (risk management), as opposed to a focus on each individual danger.Disaster risk management consists of the following elementsI. Risk AnalysisII. Disaster Prevention and MitigationIII. Disaster Preparedness andIV. Disaster tour ReconstructionThere is a risk of natural disaster when a society is exposed to natural hazards but lack fitting agent and ability to protect itself from potential negative impacts i.e. photograph. The risk management process analyzes the natural hazard in relation to the societys vulnerability, in order to first evaluate potential damage and losses. This involves calculating the probability that a natural hazard will occur, identifying vulnerability factors in society, drawing up damage scenarios and evaluating measures for rapid reconstruction in the even of a disaster. A societys abili ty to continue to function while dealing with a hazard is cognise as its resilience. Prevention and mitigation covers activities whose long term aim is to decrease the possible adverse impacts of a natural even and its consequences and provide permanent protection against its effects. Prevention and mitigation measures may be constructional and non material. The process of preparedness enables the country to respond effectively in case of an close disaster. distinguished elements in the process of preparedness include making the emergency plans, the openness of rescue and emergency services, emergency medical care, rapid and efficient infection of monitions and the availability of means of communication. An important component of preparedness is the earlier wane system which significantly reduces the impact of disaster. A good early warning system will promptly identify and assess a hazard. Warnings are issued to the affected population and institutions, who respond befit tingly. Disaster preventive reconstruction aims to draw appropriate lessons from the natural disaster and to include disaster reduction criteria and measures directly in the reconstruction process.Disaster Risk Management Process3.3 vulnerability of South Asian Countries to DisastersVulnerability can be delimit as the inadequate means or ability to protect oneself against the adverse impacts of natural events and, on the other hand, to recover quickly from their effects. The South Asian countries of the world are vulnerable to a number of factors. These factors comprise of very diverse, often vernacularly reciprocal, factors that have to be taken into account to mold the vulnerability of a family, a village or a country. The main vulnerability factors of ontogeny countries to disasters are summarized below * Political-Institutional FactorsOne of the important vulnerable factors of growing countries to natural disaster is semipolitical and institutional factor. The role of l egislation is abstracted and also it is not commensurate with the hazard or is not utilize (regional development and land use planning, building regulations). The personnel and fiscal resources available for disaster risk management and preparedness are inadequate. Roles are not properly or clearly assigned and there is a lack of coordination in and amongst the responsible institutions (including centralism insufficient power for local actors) in develop countries. The political floriculture is conducive to vested interests and corruption, which hampers consistent disaster risk management (e.g. in the building trade) and effective disaster preparedness. The Democratic institutions in evolution countries are underdeveloped and also low level of participation of the population in democratic processes diminishes their self-help capabilities is very low. Also the mechanisms and instruments for spreading financial risks are lacking or inadequate (e.g. disaster funds, insurance). A cu lture of prevention is obstructed or insufficiently promoted. All of these above mentioned make the evolution nation more vulnerable to the natural disasters. * Economic factorsanother(prenominal) important vulnerable factor of maturation countries to natural disaster is then economic factor. In developing countries the financial resources are insufficient for disaster risk management (e.g. for flood protection infrastructure). Also the level of poverty in general limits the self-help capabilities of large parts of the population, although very effective traditional mechanisms to cope with disasters still exist in many developing countries. In the developing countries poverty increasingly compels people to settle in endangered areas (on riverbanks and bury slopes, in gulleys or ravines or on the slopes of volcanoes). Partly through environmental degradation (e.g. unofficial garbage dumps or slash-and-burn clearance), misfortunate people often contribute to their own higher disa ster risk. The economies of developing countries also bet on a few products (low level of diversification) and the danger is particularly great if these sectors are vulnerable to disaster (e.g. culture). Not enough account is taken of the influence of economic activities on disaster risk (e.g. usance of natural resources). * Sociocultural factorsSocio cultural factor also play an important role in making the developing countries vulnerable to natural disasters. In developing countries due to poor education and insufficient knowledge of the cause-effect matrix, people are less able to respond appropriately in a changing environment. Also fatalism is widespread as a consequence of the belief that natural disasters are willed by God and are therefore inevitable. In developing countries the tradition of slash-and-burn clearance or the application of out-dated take methods can result in great vulnerability for people and their property. On the other hand it may result in greater haz ard due to the adverse impact on the natural environment (e.g. wearing through deforestation). The population is not prepared to engage in mutual support schemes and organize themselves in order to negotiate competing interests in the search for greater levels of general welfare. These political, economic and cultural factors are interconnected in a complex way. They have a reciprocal relationship and often complex each other. Progress in individual aspects, therefore, may well also have a positive effect on other vulnerability factors. A general improvement in school education, for instance, can be expected to help reduce poverty, facilitate the application of appropriate toil methods and raise organizational abilities. This in turn can motivate people for prevention, thus generating a positive influence on the political factors through greater participation.3.4 Impact and Threat of Climate ChangeThe major impacts and threats of global warming are well-known. Recent increase in global temperature as already experienced intensity and extreme events, for example frequent occurrence of flood and intensity of heat wave. On the other hand global warming will increase melting pissing from glaciers and ice sheets which will cause sea level to rise and also has the potential to influence global patterns of ocean circulation respectively. This causes thermal expansion of the oceans.Climate change will have wide-ranging effects on the environment, socio-economic and related sectors, including wet resources, agriculture, viands security, human health, global ecosystems, biodiversity and coastal zones. Some of the impact and threat had already been experienced and if this continued in current way which will affect the global ecosystem in the following way. Impact Threats1. Changes in rainwater pattern1. Will lead to spartan shortage of water and causes drought well-nigh the globe2. Will increase average rainfall and causes severe fill around the globe.3. It wil l have unpleasant impact on agriculture and traditional subsistence-based agriculture. This becomes more vulnerable and difficult which will finally poignant the economic well-being of the local famers.2. Melting of glaciers1. Many rivers and lakes form by melting of glacier water will grow in size and causes implosion therapy recently which pose threat to nearby villages but very in brief when there will be no glacial melt, this causes them to run dry up and spread drought.2. If the melting of glaciers continues on the current rate, all Farmlands which depend on glacial water will dry up and it will lead up to scarcity of aliment.3. Sea level will rise and faultless communities living on coastal zone always pose threat from increasing sea water level.4. Many animals, birds, and fish that depend on fresh melting water from glaciers for survival will every reduce in numbers or get wiped out over a period of time.3. Change in regional temperatureChange in climate patterns will cause shift in crop festering seasons which affects food security. Crops will tend to fail or become unbeneficial where conditions are currently marginal for their production but on the other hand crops may tend to grow successfully in other area where conditions are suitable and has become marginal for other crops.2. Increase in temperature will speed up the life cycles of both the mosquito and the disease viruses. This will elicit picayuneer adult mosquitoes to feed more often to develop an clump batch, which in turn increases the chances for disease transmission which will edit more people at risk from diseases such as malaria and dandy fever fever.3. Temperature increases will potentially accelerate rates of extinction for many habitats and species (up to 30% with a 2 C rise in temperature). It will also affect coral reefs, boreal, forests and mountain habitats.4. Increasing sea levels1. It will greater the risk of storm surge, inundation and wave damage to coastlines, par ticularly in small island states and countries with low lying deltas.2. Fresh underground water on coastal lines will get polluted with salty sea water making it unfit for drinking or irrigation Who is most Vulnerable to natural hazard?98% of those killed and affected by natural disasters come from developing countries, underlining the contact between poverty and vulnerability to disaster. Rich countries have a far greater ability to reduce the effects of extreme brave out events (such as floods and droughts) than developing countries. Proof of this can be found in statistics produced by the Red Cross, which reveal that 22.5 people die per reported disaster in highly developed nations, 145 die per disaster in nations of spiritualist human development. By 2025 over half of all people living in developing countries will be highly vulnerable to floods and storms. (World Disaster report, 2001)Natural hazards are a part of life. But hazards only become disasters when peoples lives and livelihoods are swept away. The vulnerability of communities is growing due to human activities that lead to increased poverty, greater urban densStrategies for Disaster Risk ManagementStrategies for Disaster Risk ManagementINTRODUCTION I. BackgroundNatural disasters have always posed a threat to development. Developing countries are usually far less well placed than industrialised ones to deal effectively with hazards that occur out of the blue. The first priority must be to reduce peoples (men, women and young people) vulnerability to natural hazards such as earthquakes, floods and storms and to avoid the emergence of new risks, in order to secure the progress of development. Disaster risk management is therefore crucial to sustainable development. It is closely linked with the overarching Millennium Development Goal (MDG) of reducing poverty (M D G 1) in many parts of the world this goal cannot be achieved without it.In its report Towards Halving Poverty the German Government aga in emphasised this linkDisaster relief on its own is not enough. In order to save human lives effectively and protect individuals and economies from physical damage in the long term, everything possible must be done before a natural disaster occurs to minimise the impact. Disaster prevention is therefore an important part of any sustainable development strategy. (Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development (B M Z), 2004 page32)In recent years the need for disaster risk management has increased as a result of the rise in the number of damaging natural events.Some global trends (such as increasing population pressure on natural resources in some regions, urbanisation and widening economic disparities) are likely to further amplify the risks arising from an increase in the number and intensity of hazardous natural events. As a result of climate change, disaster risk management is facing challenges on an unprecedented scale. In conjunction with these developments, we are s eeing a growing risk of crises and conflicts, in particular those arising from competition for vital resources. By dealing appropriately and gender-sensitively with natural disasters and climate change, however, we can go some way to remove the conflict potential.Disaster risk management is first and foremost the responsibility of the affected country. It is particularly important in countries exposed to major natural risks. In such countries, elements of disaster risk management should increasingly be incorporated as standard practice into national development strategies (such as poverty reduction strategies) and other local, national plans. This presupposes that the statutory and institutional framework required is in place. Entry points for effective action must be identified for each sector. The examples presented in this publication have shown that their education of disaster risks can be addressed at many levels. However, it is always important that the people potentially aff ected are sensitised and given the information they need, so that they can react promptly they are directly involved at the scene of the event.Natural hazards and disasters are events that are frequently result in high death tolls and large economic losses which is now becoming a major concerned to international community because of large impact of life losses and economic losses in developing countries. Why is natural hazards and disasters occurring so frequently now a days and how did man increases vulnerability. Population growth, run away organization, high rise building, uses of limited rescores, environment damage etc are just some of the factor explaining the sources of frequent natural hazards which leads to human and material casualties in case of disaster. If there is a risk of natural hazard then large population area is most vulnerable and the impact of disaster will also be high. The traditional way to cope with disaster was using warning before disaster strikes and eme rgency relief after disaster occurs and the government agency would only play its role in coping disaster. This approach is adequate to reduce losses in disaster to acceptable levelsDue to frequent natural disaster taking place and large of life and economic losses, international community came to the point that by implanting Community Base Management Approach is a process in which at-risk communities are actively engaged in the identification, analysis, treatment, monitoring and evaluation of disaster risks in order to reduce their vulnerabilities and enhance their capacities Disasters can become uncontrollable, once the event has got underway. If the community were not well prepared, control over the disaster event would be usually lost during its occurrence. If each individual in the community is familiar with ways of coping and precautionary measures, then the disruption by a disaster can be reduced. This Community Base Approach where community plays an anchor role with the supp ort of Government, non-government institution agencies. The involvement of the communities is the key aspect for the sustainability of community for disaster reduction. External agencies, like government, non-government organizations may begin and implement community level programs before and after disasters. However, such initiative many measure discontinue once the external support is ended. There can be many reasons behind this lack of sustainability, some of which may be the lack of partnership, participation, empowerment and ownership of local communities.All communities have some vitally important assets to deal with disasters. These may include knowledge of disaster warning signs, locally safe and vulnerable areas, experience of past disasters, methods of survival and social relations that are often vitally important in coping with crisis. Local communities have an active part to play before and after disasters so it is therefore important to involve people in decision makin g on policies and strategies that should be followed for their development in the community. The objective of this management is to prepare community develop hazards mitigation plans before disaster strikes. An effective plan will improve communitys ability to deal with natural disasters and most efficient and effective ways to reduce losses to life and property. Preparing a plan will provide the following benefits to the communityReduce public and private damage costsReduce social, emotional, and economic disruptionIncrease access to funding sources for hazard mitigation projectsImprove ability to implement post-disaster recovery projects by using risk management tools.More number of lives can be saved during the first few hours after disaster has occurred through local response teams, before help arrives from elsewhere.The numerous problems of survival and health resulting from a disaster are dealt with more efficiently, if the community is active and well organized.The social and economic cost of natural disasters has increased in recent years due to population growth, change in land use patterns, migration and unplanned urbanization, environmental degradation and global climate change.16 In addition to the loss of lives and major destruction of economic and social infrastructure, natural disasters set back poverty reduction programs and cause diversion of government funds to pay for reconstruction and recovery efforts. There has been little formal analysis of the longer-term impacts of disasters in the Philippines but annual infrastructure losses and related diversion of scarce public resources must ultimately have an impact on the countrys long-term sustainable developmentII. Research QuestionsFollowing are the three research questions on which I will conduct my research.In the first part, I will identify the hazards and their impact on third world countries and then I will analyze what are the risks associated with the natural disasters in third world co untries.In the second part, I will illustrate the case to support the discussion above, and impact of climate change and mapping of disaster prone area of each South Asian countries.1. Research MethodologyThe research onion described by Mark Saunders, Philip Lewis and Adrian Thornhill (2006) is used to analyze the philosophy, approach and strategy of research.a) PhilosophyThe major philosophy used in this research used is Realism. According to Saunders, Lewis Thornhill (2007), realism is a branch of epistemology which is similar to positivism in that it assumes a scientific approach to the development of knowledge. This assumption underpins the collection of data and the understanding of that data. Bhaskar (1989) argues that we can identify what we dont see through the practical and theoretical processes of the social sciences. The objective of the research is to assess the impact of climate change and mapping of disaster prone area of each South Asian countries. so ontology is not the right choice for this particular research as according to Saunders, Lewis Thornhill (2007), it is concerned with the nature of reality.b) ApproachThe research has employed inductive as well as deductive approach. Since, one of the main objectives of the research is to out the impact of climate change and mapping of disaster prone area of each South Asian countries, therefore inductive approach has been used extensively. Only where there is a requirement of analyzing the quantitative data, deductive approach will be used.The research approach influences design and gives the researcher the opportunity to consider how each of the various approaches may contribute to, or limit, his study (Creswell, 2003). For research theory there are two main approaches which are mainly used i.e. deductive and inductive approach. Firstly the analysis of the collected data, and then a theory or hypothesis is formulated, this is inductive approach. In contrast, a deductive approach is where, after reviewing the existing theory, hypothesis is developed which is then tested by conducting a research (Bryman, and Bell 2007)The study for will follow Inductive approach for two reasons. In the first place the research involves observation of past disasters, impact of this disaster with s of death and economic losses and currently number of people living in prone disaster areas. In the second place, the inductive approach appears more appropriate to the purpose of this study which is to gather the problem facing to implementing disaster management plan and roles of public and private sector in making strategy and policies with sustainability of the plan.c) StrategyThere are two types of research strategies i.e. qualitative and quantitative. Qualitative research strategy is the general orientation to conduct business research. It usually focuses on words instead of statistical analysis of data. It usually involves inductive approach to the relationship of theory and research. The main aim is to generate a theory. Interviewing the expatriate is the main purpose of this research (Bryman and Bell, 2007).On the other hand, quantitative research strategy focuses more on the quantification in collection and analysis of data. It usually involves deductive approach to the relationship of theory and research. Testing the theories in the main purpose in quantitative research (Bryman and Bell, 2007)Some common contrasts between qualitative and quantitative research.Qualitative QuantitativeWords NumbersPoint of views of participants Point of views of researchersResearcher close Researcher distantTheory emergent Theory testingProcess StaticUnstructured StructuredContextual understanding GeneralizedRich, deep data Hard, reliable dataMicro MacroMeaning BehaviourNatural settings Artificial settings(Source Bryman and Bell, 2007 426)The strategy of this research will maintain both strategy but quantitative will be more domains on qualitative strategy. Quantitative strategy will p rovide base on which qualitative strategy will dependable on. According to Burgess, 1982 There are several reasons for using the qualitative research. First reason is the belief of the researcher which is based upon the research experience. The other important point is that most researchers use this method, hoping that their work has direct or potential relevance for academic as well as non-academic audiences. All methods have advantages and disadvantages but some methods are still better than the other in order to obtain primary data. Small numbers of participants are used to obtain primary data in this research. In-depth interview is a form of conversation. (Burgess, 1982)d) Data Analysis ApproachThe research is mainly comprised of qualitative data and will be inductive in nature hence analytical induction approach will be used to make the critical remarks. Other theories do not cope with the philosophy, approach and strategy of the research and cannot be used for that reason.Geog raphic Information System (GIS) tools help to answer questions like who is vulnerable, where they are and why they are vulnerable. GIS was used to identify vulnerable areas using statistical tools. Although the data generated are usually integrated in the form of tables, graphs and/or charts, maps have the advantage of presenting data in an easily accessible, readily visible and eye-catching manner. The resulting maps combine information from different sectors to provide an immediately comprehensive picture of the geographical distribution of vulnerable group. By providing a visual overview on the major issues, maps highlight gaps and shortfalls in information and thus areas needing attention. A GIS based approach is helpful for highly disaggregated data it can easily perform statistical analysis as well as graphic presentation.2. SamplingSample population consists of a number of third world countries such as India, Bangaldesh and Pakistan which are the focus of some of the key disa ster in recent years will be under the main focus. Because of the special nature of this research, the data collection points are huge. Henry (1990) advised against using probability sampling technique for sample population of less than 50. Because of the short time span and financial constraints the research will employ homogenous sampling technique. Saunders, Lewis Thornhill (2007) argue that homogenous sampling technique focuses on one sub group in which all the sample members are similar. This will help us to cover the topic in detail.3. Data CollectionThe research employees both qualitative and quantitative data techniques to draw conclusions. However, main emphasis will be given to collect and analyze the qualitative data. The plan of the research will be mainly to use primary data collected from both primary and secondary sources. In this approach different historical data were used to point out the areas and communities which experienced the disaster situation in the past a nd their present risk and degree of vulnerability. This is more like, learning from past mistake and applying new strategy and plan which was missing in the past. This approach is very helpful in making strategy, determining policies, identifying natural hazard area and communities and implanting plan.According to Jackson (1994) the value of a research is related to its data collection methods and importantly, whether or not it includes both secondary and primary data. Data for the study were collected in two sources primary and secondary sources. Both primary and secondary data sources were analyzed together to strengths the material and minimize their weaknesses by combining them in respectable way. There are many methods to collect the primary data, but this research will more focus on Literature review, case studies, bibliography, questionnaire and GIS techniques. All these method can be qualitative and quantitative in natureMostly secondary data of this study included records a nd latest reports available from the CRED disaster database. Other sources such as articles, textbooks, journals, annual reports, websites etc were also very helpful and used to support reports.Two types of data were used for obtaining data from different reports. Historic data and GIS (geographic Information System) based mapping data.a) Secondary Sources of DataSecondary data will be of utmost importance in this research. Information will be acquired from reliable sources. Priority will be given to government sources in order to provide accurate information. Online website such as Business Monitor Online will be used comprehensively because they contain most up-to-date information. Journals and articles will be used extensively as well because explanation of data from these sources will be more accurate. This research will also include statistical analysis where information will be easily accessible from company reports, IMF Reports, World Bank Reports and government websites.4. L imitations of the ResearchThere will be a lot of limitations and restrictions in carrying out the desired research. There are limitations associated with the available and up to date data on the third world countries. The questionnaire in research project is to support findings which will be drawn from secondary data but insufficient funds and time restriction may hold back the collection of primary data. The qualitative data analysis also poses threat because it may involve human judgment errors.3. Literature Review 3.1 IntroductionIn this chapter the objectives of the study will focus on the impact of climate change and mapping of disaster prone area of each South Asian countries. Research of this mapping is mapped on the base of district level which covers whole region of South Asia. District is divided according to Administrative division of its related country. So the size, population, geological location and climate condition will vary each other although it is situated in sam e provinces. The mapping of these districts is related to high and medium level of risk to natural events is included in this table. Some district has been promoted to disaster prone district although there have been no evidence of such natural events in past but due to certain factors like rises of sea level, earth quake zone, change in climate condition etc, makes these districts highly exposed to natural events in future. Such as Maldives, although there have been no evidence of tsunami for past 100 years but due to rise in sea level and located in earth quake zone whole Maldives is at high risk to flood and tsunami.This table is made on the bases of related to human life and economic losses. So Natural event like wild fire which is very frequent in Nepal and Burma has been excluded from the table because the impact on human lifes and economic losses are very low, although its impact on environmental is very high.3.2 DisasterThe term disaster can be defined as A serious disruptio n of the functioning of society, causing widespread human, material or environmental losses which exceed the ability of affected society to cope using only its own resources.This notion of disaster draws a distinction between sudden and slow onset disasters.Amongst natural disasters extreme droughts are the only ones that are slow onset by nature. The causes and effects of a drought disaster are far more difficult to ascertain than sudden natural events such as earthquakes, tsunamis or landslides. Due to the gradual nature of the process, often taking place over months and even years, the causes are more complex and it is often only possible to identify the effects indirectly.However, not every extreme natural event is a disaster. A volcanic eruption in an unoccupied area is a natural event but not a disaster. Floods can also have many beneficial effects the soil is supplied with fresh nutrients and made more fertile again, resulting in higher yields. So, disasters always have adve rse impacts but specific approaches to them must cater for the dual nature of such events, i.e. disaster risk management searches to maintain the positive impacts while reducing the adverse consequences of extreme natural events.3.2 Disaster Risk ManagementTechnical Cooperation defines disaster risk management as a series of actions (programmes, projects and/or measures) and instruments expressly aimed at reducing disaster risk in endangered regions, and mitigating the extent of disasters.Disaster risk management includes risk assessment, disaster prevention and mitigation and disaster preparedness. It is used in the international debate to underscore the current trend of taking a proactive approach to hazards posed by extreme natural phenomena. The intention is a comprehensive reduction in disaster risk accounting for all the factors that contribute to risk (risk management), as opposed to a focus on each individual danger.Disaster risk management consists of the following elements I. Risk AnalysisII. Disaster Prevention and MitigationIII. Disaster Preparedness andIV. Disaster Preventive ReconstructionThere is a risk of natural disaster when a society is exposed to natural hazards but lack adequate means and ability to protect itself from potential negative impacts i.e. vulnerability. The risk management process analyzes the natural hazard in relation to the societys vulnerability, in order to first evaluate potential damage and losses. This involves calculating the probability that a natural hazard will occur, identifying vulnerability factors in society, drawing up damage scenarios and evaluating measures for rapid reconstruction in the even of a disaster. A societys ability to continue to function while dealing with a hazard is known as its resilience. Prevention and mitigation covers activities whose long term aim is to mitigate the possible adverse impacts of a natural even and its consequences and provide permanent protection against its effects. Prevent ion and mitigation measures may be constructional and non material. The process of preparedness enables the country to respond effectively in case of an imminent disaster. Important elements in the process of preparedness include making the emergency plans, the availability of rescue and emergency services, emergency medical care, rapid and efficient transmission of warnings and the availability of means of communication. An important component of preparedness is the early waning system which significantly reduces the impact of disaster. A good early warning system will promptly identify and assess a hazard. Warnings are issued to the affected population and institutions, who respond appropriately. Disaster preventive reconstruction aims to draw appropriate lessons from the natural disaster and to include disaster reduction criteria and measures directly in the reconstruction process.Disaster Risk Management Process3.3 Vulnerability of South Asian Countries to DisastersVulnerability can be defined as the inadequate means or ability to protect oneself against the adverse impacts of natural events and, on the other hand, to recover quickly from their effects. The South Asian countries of the world are vulnerable to a number of factors. These factors comprise of very diverse, often mutually reciprocal, factors that have to be taken into account to determine the vulnerability of a family, a village or a country. The main vulnerability factors of developing countries to disasters are summarized below * Political-Institutional FactorsOne of the important vulnerable factors of developing countries to natural disaster is political and institutional factor. The role of legislation is lacking and also it is not commensurate with the hazard or is not implemented (regional development and land use planning, building regulations). The personnel and financial resources available for disaster risk management and preparedness are inadequate. Roles are not properly or clearly assigned and there is a lack of coordination in and amongst the responsible institutions (including centralism insufficient power for local actors) in developing countries. The political culture is conducive to vested interests and corruption, which hampers consistent disaster risk management (e.g. in the building trade) and effective disaster preparedness. The Democratic institutions in developing countries are underdeveloped and also low level of participation of the population in democratic processes diminishes their self-help capabilities is very low. Also the mechanisms and instruments for spreading financial risks are lacking or inadequate (e.g. disaster funds, insurance). A culture of prevention is obstructed or insufficiently promoted. All of these above mentioned make the developing nation more vulnerable to the natural disasters. * Economic factorsAnother important vulnerable factor of developing countries to natural disaster is then economic factor. In developing countrie s the financial resources are insufficient for disaster risk management (e.g. for flood protection infrastructure). Also the level of poverty in general limits the self-help capabilities of large parts of the population, although very effective traditional mechanisms to cope with disasters still exist in many developing countries. In the developing countries poverty increasingly compels people to settle in endangered areas (on riverbanks and steep slopes, in gulleys or ravines or on the slopes of volcanoes). Partly through environmental degradation (e.g. unofficial garbage dumps or slash-and-burn clearance), poor people often contribute to their own higher disaster risk. The economies of developing countries also depend on a few products (low level of diversification) and the danger is particularly great if these sectors are vulnerable to disaster (e.g. agriculture). Not enough account is taken of the influence of economic activities on disaster risk (e.g. consumption of natural res ources). * Sociocultural factorsSocio cultural factor also play an important role in making the developing countries vulnerable to natural disasters. In developing countries due to poor education and insufficient knowledge of the cause-effect matrix, people are less able to respond appropriately in a changing environment. Also fatalism is widespread as a consequence of the belief that natural disasters are willed by God and are therefore inevitable. In developing countries the tradition of slash-and-burn clearance or the application of out-dated production methods can result in greater vulnerability for people and their property. On the other hand it may result in greater hazard due to the adverse impact on the natural environment (e.g. erosion through deforestation). The population is not prepared to engage in mutual support schemes and organize themselves in order to negotiate competing interests in the search for greater levels of general welfare. These political, economic and cu ltural factors are interconnected in a complex way. They have a reciprocal relationship and often compound each other. Progress in individual aspects, therefore, may well also have a positive effect on other vulnerability factors. A general improvement in school education, for instance, can be expected to help reduce poverty, facilitate the application of appropriate production methods and raise organizational abilities. This in turn can motivate people for prevention, thus generating a positive influence on the political factors through greater participation.3.4 Impact and Threat of Climate ChangeThe major impacts and threats of global warming are well-known. Recent increase in global temperature as already experienced intensity and extreme events, for example frequent occurrence of flood and intensity of heat wave. On the other hand global warming will increase melting water from glaciers and ice sheets which will cause sea level to rise and also has the potential to influence glo bal patterns of ocean circulation respectively. This causes thermal expansion of the oceans.Climate change will have wide-ranging effects on the environment, socio-economic and related sectors, including water resources, agriculture, food security, human health, global ecosystems, biodiversity and coastal zones. Some of the impact and threat had already been experienced and if this continued in current way which will affect the global ecosystem in the following way. Impact Threats1. Changes in rainfall pattern1. Will lead to severe shortage of water and causes drought around the globe2. Will increase average rainfall and causes severe flooding around the globe.3. It will have unpleasant impact on agriculture and traditional subsistence-based agriculture. This becomes more vulnerable and difficult which will eventually affecting the economic well-being of the local famers.2. Melting of glaciers1. Many rivers and lakes formed by melting of glacier water will grow in size and causes fl ooding recently which pose threat to nearby villages but very soon when there will be no glacial melt, this causes them to dry up and spread drought.2. If the melting of glaciers continues on the current rate, all Farmlands which depend on glacial water will dry up and it will lead up to scarcity of food.3. Sea level will rise and entire communities living on coastal zone always pose threat from increasing sea water level.4. Many animals, birds, and fish that depend on fresh melting water from glaciers for survival will either reduce in numbers or get wiped out over a period of time.3. Change in regional temperatureChange in climate patterns will cause shift in crop growing seasons which affects food security. Crops will tend to fail or become unbeneficial where conditions are currently marginal for their production but on the other hand crops may tend to grow successfully in other area where conditions are suitable and has become marginal for other crops.2. Increase in temperature will speed up the life cycles of both the mosquito and the disease viruses. This will produce smaller adult mosquitoes to feed more often to develop an egg batch, which in turn increases the chances for disease transmission which will put more people at risk from diseases such as malaria and dengue fever.3. Temperature increases will potentially accelerate rates of extinction for many habitats and species (up to 30% with a 2 C rise in temperature). It will also affect coral reefs, boreal, forests and mountain habitats.4. Increasing sea levels1. It will greater the risk of storm surge, inundation and wave damage to coastlines, particularly in small island states and countries with low lying deltas.2. Fresh underground water on coastal lines will get polluted with salty sea water making it unfit for drinking or irrigation Who is most Vulnerable to natural hazard?98% of those killed and affected by natural disasters come from developing countries, underlining the link between poverty a nd vulnerability to disaster. Rich countries have a far greater ability to reduce the effects of extreme weather events (such as floods and droughts) than developing countries. Proof of this can be found in statistics produced by the Red Cross, which reveal that 22.5 people die per reported disaster in highly developed nations, 145 die per disaster in nations of medium human development. By 2025 over half of all people living in developing countries will be highly vulnerable to floods and storms. (World Disaster report, 2001)Natural hazards are a part of life. But hazards only become disasters when peoples lives and livelihoods are swept away. The vulnerability of communities is growing due to human activities that lead to increased poverty, greater urban dens